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用户:Dkzzl/君士坦丁堡之围 (674年-678年)

维基百科,自由的百科全书
抄本第293张反面、294张正面与294张反面,包含自约翰二世·科穆宁君士坦丁十一世·巴列奥略的皇帝肖像,君士坦丁十一世之后的最后一个肖像描绘的是君士坦丁大帝

摩德纳希腊文122号手抄本(拉丁语:Codex Mutinensis graecus 122,简称Mutinensis gr. 122)[1][注 1],是一份写于15世纪的希腊文抄本,现藏于意大利摩德纳埃斯特图书馆。“摩德纳希腊文122号”是现代分配的编号,抄本本身的标题是“历史摘录”(希腊语Ἐπιτομὴ Ἱστοριῶν[3],其主要内容取自12世纪拜占庭史家约翰·佐纳拉斯的《历史摘录》。

除了约翰·佐纳拉斯的作品内容(自罗马帝国建立到12世纪初阿莱克修斯一世皇帝去世的编年史[注 2])外,这份抄本还包含一个原创的序言和部分原创内容,将其覆盖的历史范围扩展到1453年君士坦丁堡陷落;此外还有几种简短的列表与描述,如宫廷官员、教会官员、皇陵的清单。这份抄本初次制作于约1425年,原本是约翰·佐纳拉斯作品的抄本,之后又于1453年之后的某个时候由另一位抄书人加上了新的内容。这位抄书员很可能是被君士坦丁堡的陷落震动,以扩展这份抄本的方法来保存对逝去的古老帝国的记忆。

这份抄本最大的特点是包含大量罗马-拜占庭皇帝的微型肖像英语Portrait miniature,自公元前27年受封奥古斯都屋大维至1453年战死的君士坦丁十一世,几乎每一位罗马皇帝的肖像都出现在这份抄本中,现存的抄本中只有这份包含这种内容。早期罗马皇帝的肖像可能全出于想象绘制,但7世纪之后的皇帝肖像更加可信(尽管比不上近代的自然主义艺术),并与描绘皇帝外貌的其他史料比较吻合,可能是基于保存下来的当时绘制的肖像或当时的文字描述、硬币上的肖像。一些皇帝,如米海尔九世(1294-1320年在位的共治皇帝)、安德洛尼卡四世(1376-1379年在位)等人的肖像仅见于这份抄本。在约翰·佐纳拉斯作品涵盖的时段,各个皇帝的肖像位于抄本边缘,出现在文本第一次提到他掌权的地方,起到标志皇权变换的作用。佐纳拉斯作品所没有提到的阿莱克修斯一世之后的皇帝的肖像则按顺序集中绘制于靠近抄本末尾的几页中。

内容与组成

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抄本的部分页面(第59张反面、第74张正面、第184张反面、第270张正面),分别包含戈尔迪安一世戈尔迪安二世君士坦丁大帝巴西尔一世罗曼努斯四世·第欧根尼的肖像。自奥古斯都阿莱克修斯一世·科穆宁的皇帝肖像附在文本旁边

这份抄本创作于15世纪,共有295张纸,每张长25厘米,宽16厘米[4]。抄本的主要内容抄自12世纪拜占庭帝国官方史家约翰·佐纳拉斯的作品《历史摘录》(希腊语Ἐπιτομὴ Ἱστοριῶν),一份自上帝创世开始,到1118年约翰二世·科穆宁继位为止的世界编年史,主要关注罗马帝国及拜占庭帝国历史[5]。但这份抄本略去了佐纳拉斯作品的开头部分,以第十卷中克里奥帕特拉的故事为开始,从第6张正面到第285张,都是抄录佐纳拉斯的作品[4][注 3]

这份抄本最大的特点是其中贯穿全书的肖像[5]。其第6张至第285张包含自公元前27年受封奥古斯都屋大维阿莱克修斯一世·科穆宁的几乎每一位罗马皇帝的肖像[4],自约翰二世·科穆宁至1453年战死的君士坦丁十一世的皇帝肖像则集中绘制于抄本末尾[5]。现存的抄本中只有这份包含如此全面的拜占庭皇帝肖像[6]。一些皇帝,如米海尔九世(1294-1320年在位的共治皇帝)、安德洛尼卡四世(1376-1379年在位)等人的肖像仅见于这份抄本[7]。。在约翰·佐纳拉斯作品涵盖的时段,各个皇帝(直到阿莱克修斯一世)的肖像位于抄本边缘,出现在文本第一次提到他掌权的地方,起到标志皇权变换的作用[4]

抄本中后期的皇帝(拜占庭皇帝)的肖像都是正脸朝前,十分标准化,而罗马时期的皇帝肖像则姿势多样,脸的朝向也各不相同[8]。这种不同可能源于抄写员在不同历史时期所依靠的原始资料不同。[9]而后期皇帝正面朝前、表情严肃的形象可能反映了帝国官方的皇帝形象[6]

在抄录佐纳拉斯的史书之前,抄写者加入了一篇简短的序言,位于抄本的第2张正面-第5张正面,概述了自世界创始(遵循《圣经·创世记》的说法)到君士坦丁堡陷落的历史,题为“起初,神创造天地君士坦丁·巴列奥略[4]。佐纳拉斯的史书内容结束之后,抄本中出现了几张空白页,至289张开始则有几种列表[4],依次是拜占庭宫廷机构表(第289张反面)、自梅特罗法内斯英语Metrophanes of Byzantium(306-314年在位)至格里高利三世(1443-1451年在位)的君士坦丁堡普世牧首表(第290张反面-第291张正面)、按等级排列的普世牧首区都主教区列表(第290张正面-第291张正面)、皇帝陵墓列表(第291张正面-第292张正面)、自君士坦丁大帝开始的皇帝列表(第292张反面-第293张反面) ,之后是一组皇帝群像。整个抄本以第295张对矗立于奥古斯塔广场查士丁尼一世骑马像的描述告终[4]

在抄本接近结尾处的皇帝群像中,君士坦丁大帝的肖像紧随君士坦丁十一世的肖像再次出现[10](这也是君士坦丁大帝的肖像第三次在抄本中出现,前两次是在第74张正面与反面[11])。重复的君士坦丁大帝肖像似乎给予读者一种预言性、启示录般的信息,这可能是追随君士坦丁堡沦陷后第一位普世牧首——根纳季乌斯二世的观点,后者认为,君士坦丁堡的第一位与最后一位皇帝名字都叫君士坦丁的事实意味着,世界末日就快要到来了;肖像重复至少也表明了一种信念,即皇帝世系的开始与结束不可磨灭地联系在了一起[10]

历史

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创作

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传统观点假设这份抄本由两位抄写员创作[5][注 4],这一抄本一开始只是佐纳拉斯作品的简单抄写(约完成于1425年)[13]。并没有直接的证据能证明这一估计年份,但可以合理地这样假设,因为第一位抄写员创作的最后一幅肖像可能是曼努埃尔二世(1391-1425年在位)的老年肖像[14]。第一位抄写员抄录了佐纳拉斯的作品,但并没有抄完整,之后的第二位抄写员补上了作品的结尾,并把抄本内容扩展到第285张(第一次抄写止于第263张正面)[4]。第二位抄写员所用的纸的质地与之前的不同,并且其上还有两把剪刀形状的水印,可以将其添加的内容与之前的区分开来[5]

第二位抄写员进行创作的时间应在15世纪后半叶,1453年君士坦丁堡沦陷后的某一年[4][5][14],抄本的序言应该是他撰写的(其中一个旁注提到“城市被攻陷”,证明了这一点)[4],12世纪后的历史内容[4][5]、各个列表以及描述查士丁尼一世雕像的内容也是由他创作、补充的[15]

或许君士坦丁堡的陷落是第二位抄写员保养、扩展这一作品的原因,他想借此保留对失落帝国的记忆[6]。他一定觉得完成皇帝的列表与记录很重要,除了绘制最后几位皇帝的肖像之外,他还修复并修改了前面的肖像[15]。因为抄本中的某些肖像,如克劳狄(41-54年在位) 的肖像没有上色,其余的肖像则用水彩上色,这表明抄本的早期版本中的肖像很可能并未上色,这一工作由第二位抄写者完成;他还重写了褪色的注释,并在一些肖像下面写了红色的文字[16]。It is clear that the later scribe rearranged parts of the codex. The early and final parts of the earlier scribe's work appear to have been in poor condition, apparently damaged by fire, before the second scribe took to restoring and adding to the codex. The later scribe thus kept the main body of the older codex, restoring some parts (such as the faded portraits), restored some of the lost text and added new text of his own.[17] One of the key pieces of evidence that the codex was not only restored but also rearranged is that some of the portraits presented in the later sections of the work, such as those of emperors Isaac II Angelos (r. 1185–1195, 1203–1204) and John IV Laskaris (r. 1258–1261), appear to have been cut out of earlier portions of the text and pasted in later parts.[16]

收藏与研究史

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阿尔贝托三世·皮奥英语Alberto III Pio, Prince of Carpi (1475–1531),曾收藏这本抄本

这份抄本的早期收藏史并不清楚,其中一位收藏著名叫“阿尔塞尼乌斯(Arsenius)”,可能就是曾于1506-1509年任莫奈姆瓦夏主教的阿尔森尼乌斯·阿波斯托利乌斯英语Arsenius Apostolius,威尼斯学者乔治·瓦拉英语Giorgio Valla(1447-1500年在世)也曾拥有此抄本[18],此后该本由具有文艺复兴精神的卡尔皮领主阿尔贝托三世·皮奥英语Alberto III Pio, Prince of Carpi(1475-1531年在世)收藏[4]。1573年,摩德纳埃斯特图书馆购得此本,此后该本就一直在这里保存[4][12]。成为其收藏的250多份希腊-拜占庭手抄本之一[19]。如今这份抄本的扉页已经遗失,在其第一页上有瓦拉与皮奥的签名,并附有拉丁语标识“iste liber est mei(这本书是我的)”[18]

1892年,德国学者卡尔·库伦巴赫英语Karl Krumbacher对这份抄本进行了第一次现代研究,但错误地认为其主要部分是14世纪的作品,但也认为后面的添加是15世纪做的。希腊学者斯皮里宗·兰布罗斯英语Spyridon Lambros在1903年浏览了这一抄本,其中的皇帝肖像给了他很深的印象,于是他在1905年在雅典举办的国际考古学大会上热情洋溢地展示了它。这是已知唯一一份如此完整地描绘了皇帝形象的抄本,填补了拜占庭研究者的一大知识空白[20]

1930年兰布罗斯出版《拜占庭皇帝肖像集》(Λεύκωμα Βυζαντινῶν Αὐτοκρατόρων)一书,此书包含所有拜占庭皇帝的肖像,基本来源于这一手抄本,此后,这一手抄本逐渐在拜占庭研究者中闻名[21]。1976年约安尼斯·斯帕萨拉基斯(Ioannis Spatharakis)出版的《拜占庭装饰手抄本中的肖像》(The Portrait in Byzantine Illuminated Manuscripts)第一次深入研究了这些肖像,同时也研究了其他拜占庭手抄本肖像[13]。大多数现代研究主要关注这一抄本的肖像,很少对其文字内容感兴趣[22]。对拜占庭皇帝肖像的关注也远多于对早期罗马皇帝肖像的关注[8],因为后者似乎完全是凭想象绘制的[8][23]

自20世纪初开始,这些皇帝肖像开始被出版并流传于世,在拜占庭皇帝形象构建方面较有影响。1982年,塞浦路斯发行了纪念皇帝尼基弗鲁斯二世·福卡斯(963-969年在位)解放该岛1017年的邮票,其上的尼基弗鲁斯二世肖像就是根据该抄本中的肖像修改而成[24]

皇帝肖像分析

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该抄本中的安德洛尼卡二世·巴列奥略(左)与13世纪乔治·帕希梅莱斯英语George Pachymeres《历史》抄本中的同一皇帝(右),可以看到两者都描绘了皇帝的方形胡须。该抄本皇帝肖像与他处获知形象的相似表明,抄写员尽力在忠实地表现皇帝们的形象

这本抄本中的皇帝肖像算不上是自然主义[25],而且各肖像之间往往非常相像[13],但也有胡须的有无、胡须的形状、眉毛与鼻子的形状等显著特征得到表现,表明肖像创作者也在尽力忠实地表现皇帝的形象[25]

许多种形态各异的胡子和一些皇帝的其他明显特征并不是为了避免重复而画出的,而更像是源于其他抄本或文本来源[26],以及钱币上的形象[27]。尽管过去一般认为大多数肖像纯属想象作品(尤其是那些早期的皇帝)[5],现代观点则认为这些肖像可能是抄写者基于当时存在的资料创作的[1]。这些肖像是否应该被视为准确的形象描绘仍存在争议,它们与其他更古老的抄本中的肖像能较好地匹配[5],但彼此之间经常有少数特征截然不同[13]

晚期皇帝的肖像

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The portraits of the Palaiologan dynasty (the final imperial dynasty, ruling from the 13th to 15th centuries) emperors in the codex accord well with portraits in other sources. In Mutinensis gr. 122, Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1259–1282) is depicted as having a long beard, possibly worn in a net, which is also depicted in other sources for the emperor's appearance, such as a chrysobull in the Vatican Archives and another Medieval manuscript, Monac gr. 442. Michael VIII's son and successor, Andronikos II Palaiologos (r. 1282–1328) is depicted with a wide and square-shaped beard in the codex, a depiction also collaborated by how he is portrayed in chrysobulls and other manuscripts. John VI Kantakouzenos (r. 1347–1354) is also depicted in several portraits in another manuscript, Par. gr. 1242, wherein all portraits show him with a long beard split into two, as in the Mutinensis gr. 122. The portrait of John V Palaiologos (r. 1341–1376, 1379–1390, 1390–1391), showing him as possessing a beard ending in two points, is similar to how the emperor is depicted in the chrysobull of his confession of the Roman Catholic faith (from 1369) and to how he once was depicted on a mosaic in the Hagia Sophia. There are no significant differences between how John VII Palaiologos (r. 1390) is depicted in the Mutinensis gr. 122 and how he is depicted in the only other known portrait of the emperor, in the manuscript Par. gr. 1783. The portraits of Manuel II Palaiologos (r. 1391–1425) and John VIII Palaiologos (r. 1425–1448) are very similar to portraits in other sources, Manuel always being depicted with a white beard ending in two points and with a long, straight nose and John always possessing a similar beard and an obliquely set nose. The portrait of the final emperor, Constantine XI, is similar to how he is depicted on contemporary seals. The lack of known portraits outside the codex of emperors Michael IX Palaiologos and Andronikos IV Palaiologos and Mutinensis gr. 122's depiction of Andronikos III Palaiologos (r. 1328–1341) being damaged means that their portraits can't be compared to depictions in other sources.[7]

Portraits of Alexios IV Angelos, Alexios V Doukas and Theodore I Laskaris in Mutinensis gr. 122

Comparative material is somewhat lacking for the Angelid (1185–1204) and Laskarid (1204–1261) dynasties. The Laskarid emperors (with the exception of John IV, who was a child) are all depicted as having peculiar beards with curled ends. On coins, their beards end in two short points, possibly an attempt at depicting something similar, and in another manuscript, Monac. gr. 442, Theodore II Laskaris (r. 1254–1258) is depicted with the same type of beard.[28] Both Isaac II Angelos (r. 1185–1195, 1203–1204) and Alexios III Angelos (r. 1195–1203) are portrayed on their coins as having pointed beards, reflected in the codex's depiction of Isaac II, but the codex depicts Alexios III with a beard cut short. Alexios V Doukas (r. 1204), nicknamed Murtzuphlos in his lifetime due to his bushy eyebrows, is depicted with this signature feature in the Mutinensis gr. 122.[29]

As for the Palaiologoi emperors, there are several independently created portraits of the emperors of the Komnenian dynasty (1081–1185). The portraits of these emperors in Mutinensis gr. 122 generally accord well with other known portraits. Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) is depicted with a square-shaped beard in the codex, a feature shared with depictions of the emperor in another manuscript, Vat. gr. 666. Alexios I's successor John II Komnenos is represented in the codex with a rounded beard, a feature also reflected in other sources such as a mosaic in the Hagia Sophia and a depiction in the manuscript Vat. Urb. gr. 2. The third Komnenos emperor, Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180), is depicted with a short beard in his coinage and in the manuscript Vat. gr. 1176, a feature shared by his portrait in the Mutinensis gr. 122. Manuel's heir, the child emperor Alexios II Komnenos (r. 1180–1183) is depicted without a beard and Alexios II's successor, his uncle and the adventurer Andronikos I Komnenos (r. 1183–1185) is depicted as an old man with a long, white beard ending in two points, similar to how he is depicted in his own coins. The shape of the Byzantine imperial crown was changed in the 12th century, gaining a semi-spherical top, which is reflected in portraits of emperors in the codex from John II onwards.[29]

可靠性

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该抄本中巴西尔二世的肖像(左),一份11世纪抄本中同一皇帝的肖像(中),硬币上的肖像(右图,左边的人物)。巴西尔二世是少数几个在该抄本的肖像与其他现存形象明显不太一致的皇帝之一

因为抄本制作于15世纪,后期诸王朝的皇帝肖像显然会比早期诸帝的肖像更可能可靠[25]。自7世纪之后,该抄本中的肖像与其他来源的皇帝肖像高估相似,希拉克略(610-641年在位)之后,只有少数几幅肖像与其他来源的皇帝形象间存在较大差异[23]。而希拉克略之前的皇帝肖像很大程度上,甚至可以说纯凭想象绘制[23]。例如,君士坦丁大帝时代留下来的皇帝形象没有胡须,但抄本中的君士坦丁大帝却留着小胡子[28]。 Different garments and crowns are applied to different early emperors, but the designs are all imaginary and do not match known ancient Roman imperial regalia.[8]

Two prominent examples of post-Heraclius portraits that appear to be erroneous are those of Theophilos (r. 829–842) and Basil II (r. 976–1025).[23][13] The portrait of Basil II is entirely unlike portraits of the emperor in other sources, and the portrait of Theophilos is equally dissimilar from his portraits on contemporary coins, though in Theophilos' case the coins were highly schematized and produced during the Iconoclastic period and probably carry little relevance in terms of being accurate likenesses. The portrait of Heraclius in the codex is similar to portraits of the emperor on a rare set of early coins, but dissimilar from portraits from the last 30 or so years of his reign. The portraits of emperors Constantine VII (r. 913–959), Romanos I (r. 920–944), Romanos II (r. 959–963) and Nikephoros II do not match the highly standardized portraits on the coinage of these emperors, though perhaps other sources were used for these portraits.[13] The portrait of Romanos IV Diogenes (r. 1068–1071) is similar to the portraits on the coinage of Romanos III Argyros (r. 1028–1034).[30] There are also examples of portraits of earlier emperors that match other depictions very well. For instance, the portrait of Michael V Kalaphates (r. 1041–1042) closely matches the depiction on his coins, with the same head/face shape, beard and mustache.[31]

史学分析

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“紫衣贵族”佐伊女皇(左)与她的丈夫君士坦丁九世“单独战斗者”(右)在抄本中的肖像

2001年,彼特·古兰(Petre Guran)认为约翰六世·坎塔库泽努斯的肖像值得注意。因为约翰六世虽确实于1347-1354年称帝掌权,但他的统治标志着巴列奥略王朝的短暂中断(最后一组肖像是在约翰六世失位、巴列奥略王朝皇帝恢复统治几代后创作的),而且他后来被废黜,退居修道院,以修士而非皇帝的身份结束了自己的政治生涯[32],尽管如此,他的肖像仍带有与其他皇帝相同的光圈

Barbara Hill, Liz James and Dion Smythe erroneously claimed in 1994 that the codex only includes portraits of male rulers, omitting portraits of the ruling empresses Irene, Theodora and Zoë. Hill, James and Dion believed that this exclusion of the ruling empresses may perhaps be attributable to the scribes behind the codex viewing 'imperial' as exclusively pertaining to men.[33] Contrary to the claim in their study, Mutinensis gr. 122 does contain portraits of Zoë and Theodora (though Irene does not have a portrait).[34] Excluding Zoë and Theodora would have been strange, since numerous other Byzantine writings and artworks show them as being on the same level as the male emperors. Notably, the Madrid Skylitzes depicts Zoë's marriages to emperors (her co-rulers) Romanos III, Michael IV and Constantine IX, in each case appearing to note Zoë as being ahead of her consorts in power and prestige.[35] A notable detail of the portraits of the empresses in Mutinensis gr. 122 is that they are depicted with radiate crowns, different in design from those of the male rulers. Though the crowns of Byzantine empresses are not described in any known surviving literary source, other surviving Byzantine depictions of empresses also depict crowns of female rulers and consorts in this way, confirming the designs to be accurate.[36]

精选肖像

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注释

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  1. ^ 这份抄本有时也被称为“codex Mutinensis A. S. 5.5”,之前曾被称为“codex Mutinensis III D, S 14”[2]
  2. ^ 佐纳拉斯的作品原本是自上帝创造天地开始的世界编年史,这份抄本省略了作品的开头,直接从克里奥帕特拉统治时期的记载开始[4]
  3. ^ 这里的“张”指的是两页纸,从左到右,一张纸的右面为正面,左面为反面。
  4. ^ An alternative interpretation of the creation of the codex, challenging the traditional view of two scribes, was forwarded by Olga Gratziou in 1997. She claimed that the codex was not illustrated at all originally, and that all the portraits contained within it, including both the portraits in the margins of the text and the portraits at the end, regardless of the different methods used to add them to the manuscript, were done by the same hand. Gratziou theorized that given that all portraits must then have postdated the Fall of Constantinople, and might have been created gradually by the first "post-Byzantine" owner of the book, who repaired the work and added brief historical records to update it to reflect events since original manuscript's end. Gratziou further claimed that later owners of the book then continued in a similar manner, adding notes at different points, retouching portraits and repairing damages, with the manuscript ending up being used as something akin to a "historical notebook".[12]

引用

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  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 Treadgold 1979,第1248页.
  2. ^ Burke 2014,第18页.
  3. ^ Ἐπιτομὴ Ἱστοριῶν.
  4. ^ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 Tsamakda 2017,第133页.
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Spatharakis 1976,第172页.
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Tsamakda 2017,第134页.
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Spatharakis 1976,第176–179页.
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Gratziou 1997,第46页.
  9. ^ Gratziou 1997,第48页.
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 Mattiello & Rossi 2019.
  11. ^ Gratziou 1997,第45页.
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 Gratziou 1997,第62页.
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 Breckenridge 1978,第362页.
  14. ^ 14.0 14.1 Spatharakis 1976,第175–176页.
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 Spatharakis 1976,第173页.
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 Spatharakis 1976,第174页.
  17. ^ Spatharakis 1976,第175页.
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 Allen 1890,第18页.
  19. ^ Allen 1890,第4页.
  20. ^ Gratziou 1997,第39页.
  21. ^ Gratziou 1997,第40页.
  22. ^ Gratziou 1997,第41页.
  23. ^ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Spatharakis 1976,第182页.
  24. ^ Burke 2014,第16页.
  25. ^ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Spatharakis 1976,第176页.
  26. ^ Spatharakis 1976,第183页.
  27. ^ Anderson 2021,第141页.
  28. ^ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Spatharakis 1976,第179页.
  29. ^ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 Spatharakis 1976,第180页.
  30. ^ 30.0 30.1 Wroth 1908,第xcvii页.
  31. ^ 31.0 31.1 Wroth 1908,第liv, xcvi页.
  32. ^ Guran 2001,第95–96页.
  33. ^ Hill, James & Smythe 1994,第215页.
  34. ^ Wroth 1908,第liv页.
  35. ^ Hill, James & Smythe 1994,第218–222页.
  36. ^ Bárányné Oberschall 1937,第84–85页.

参考文献

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网络资源

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外部链接

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